1	Chapter 4: Writing Classes Presentation slides for Java Software Solutions Foundations of Program Design Third Edition by John Lewis and William Loftus Java Software Solutions is published by Addison-Wesley Presentation slides are copyright 2002 by John Lewis and William Loftus. All rights reserved. Instructors using the textbook may use and modify these slides for pedagogical purposes.
2	Writing Classes We've been using predefined classes. Now we will learn to write our own classes to define objects Chapter 4 focuses on: class definitions encapsulation and Java modifiers method declaration, invocation, and parameter passing method overloading method decomposition graphics-based objects
3	Objects An object has: state - descriptive characteristics behaviors - what it can do (or what can be done to it) For example, consider a coin that can be flipped so that it's face shows either "heads" or "tails" The state of the coin is its current face (heads or tails) The behavior of the coin is that it can be flipped Note that the behavior of the coin might change its state
4	Classes A class is a blueprint of an object It is the model or pattern from which objects are created For example, the String class is used to define String objects Each String object contains specific characters (its state) Each String object can perform services (behaviors) such as toUpperCase
5	Classes The String class was provided for us by the Java standard class library But we can also write our own classes that define specific objects that we need For example, suppose we want to write a program that simulates the flipping of a coin We can write a Coin class to represent a coin object
6	Classes A class contains data declarations and method declarations
7	The Coin Class In our Coin class we could define the following data: face, an integer that represents the current face HEADS and TAILS, integer constants that represent the two possible states We might also define the following methods: a Coin constructor, to initialize the object a flip method, to flip the coin a isHeads method, to determine if the current face is heads a toString method, to return a string description for printing
8	The Coin Class See CountFlips.java (page 213) See Coin.java (page 214) Note that the CountFlips program did not use the toString method A program will not necessarily use every service provided by an object Once the Coin class has been defined, we can use it again in other programs as needed
9	Data Scope The scope of data is the area in a program in which that data can be used (referenced) Data declared at the class level can be used by all methods in that class Data declared within a method can be used only in that method Data declared within a method is called local data
10	Instance Data The face variable in the Coin class is called instance data because each instance (object) of the Coin class has its own A class declares the type of the data, but it does not reserve any memory space for it Every time a Coin object is created, a new face variable is created as well The objects of a class share the method definitions, but each has its own data space That's the only way two objects can have different states
11	Instance Data See FlipRace.java (page 217)
12	UML Diagrams UML stands for the Unified Modeling Language UML diagrams show relationships among classes and objects A UML class diagram consists of one or more classes, each with sections for the class name, attributes, and methods Lines between classes represent associations Associations can show multiplicity
13	UML Class Diagrams A UML class diagram for the FlipRace program:
14	UML Diagrams A UML object diagram consists of one or more instantiated objects. It is a snapshot of the objects during an executing program, showing data values
15	Encapsulation We can take one of two views of an object: internal - the variables the object holds and the methods that make the object useful external - the services that an object provides and how the object interacts From the external view, an object is an encapsulated entity, providing a set of specific services These services define the interface to the object Recall from Chapter 2 that an object is an abstraction, hiding details from the rest of the system
16	Encapsulation An object should be self-governing Any changes to the object's state (its variables) should be made only by that object's methods We should make it difficult, if not impossible, to access an object’s variables other than via its methods The user, or client, of an object can request its services, but it should not have to be aware of how those services are accomplished
17	Encapsulation An encapsulated object can be thought of as a black box Its inner workings are hidden to the client, which invokes only the interface methods
18	Visibility Modifiers In Java, we accomplish encapsulation through the appropriate use of visibility modifiers A modifier is a Java reserved word that specifies particular characteristics of a method or data value We've used the modifier final to define a constant Java has three visibility modifiers: public, protected, and private The protected modifier involves inheritance, which we will discuss later
19	Visibility Modifiers Members of a class that are declared with public visibility can be accessed from anywhere Public variables violate encapsulation Members of a class that are declared with private visibility can only be accessed from inside the class Members declared without a visibility modifier have default visibility and can be accessed by any class in the same package Java modifiers are discussed in detail in Appendix F
20	Visibility Modifiers Methods that provide the object's services are usually declared with public visibility so that they can be invoked by clients Public methods are also called service methods A method created simply to assist a service method is called a support method Since a support method is not intended to be called by a client, it should not be declared with public visibility
21	Visibility Modifiers
22	Driver Programs A driver progam drives the use of other, more interesting parts of a program Driver programs are often used to test other parts of the software The Banking class contains a main method that drives the use of the Account class, exercising its services See Banking.java (page 226) See Account.java (page 227)
23	Method Declarations A method declaration specifies the code that will be executed when the method is invoked (or called) When a method is invoked, the flow of control jumps to the method and executes its code When complete, the flow returns to the place where the method was called and continues The invocation may or may not return a value, depending on how the method is defined
24	Method Control Flow The called method can be within the same class, in which case only the method name is needed
25	Method Control Flow The called method can be part of another class or object
26	Method Header A method declaration begins with a method header
27	Method Body The method header is followed by the method body
28	The return Statement The return type of a method indicates the type of value that the method sends back to the calling location A method that does not return a value has a void return type A return statement specifies the value that will be returned return expression; Its expression must conform to the return type
29	Parameters Each time a method is called, the actual parameters in the invocation are copied into the formal parameters
30	Local Data Local variables can be declared inside a method The formal parameters of a method create automatic local variables when the method is invoked When the method finishes, all local variables are destroyed (including the formal parameters) Keep in mind that instance variables, declared at the class level, exists as long as the object exists Any method in the class can refer to instance data
31	Constructors Revisited Recall that a constructor is a special method that is used to initialize a newly created object When writing a constructor, remember that: it has the same name as the class it does not return a value it has no return type, not even void it typically sets the initial values of instance variables The programmer does not have to define a constructor for a class
32	Overloading Methods Method overloading is the process of using the same method name for multiple methods The signature of each overloaded method must be unique The signature includes the number, type, and order of the parameters The compiler determines which version of the method is being invoked by analyzing the parameters The return type of the method is not part of the signature
33	Overloading Methods
34	Overloaded Methods The println method is overloaded: println (String s) println (int i) println (double d) and so on... The following lines invoke different versions of the println method: System.out.println ("The total is:"); System.out.println (total);
35	Overloading Methods Constructors can be overloaded Overloaded constructors provide multiple ways to initialize a new object See SnakeEyes.java (page 236) See Die.java (page 237)
36	Method Decomposition A method should be relatively small, so that it can be understood as a single entity A potentially large method should be decomposed into several smaller methods as needed for clarity A service method of an object may call one or more support methods to accomplish its goal Support methods could call other support methods if appropriate
37	Pig Latin The process of translating an English sentence into Pig Latin can be decomposed into the process of translating each word The process of translating a word can be decomposed into the process of translating words that begin with vowels begin with consonant blends (sh, cr, tw, etc.) begins with single consonants See PigLatin.java (page 238) See PigLatinTranslator.java (page 240)
38	Class Diagrams Revisited In a UML class diagram, public members can be preceded by a plus sign Private members are preceded by a minus sign A class diagram for the PigTranslator program:
39	Object Relationships Objects can have various types of relationships to each other A general association, as we've seen in UML diagrams, is sometimes referred to as a use relationship A general association indicates that one object (or class) uses or refers to another object (or class) in some way We could even annotate an association line in a UML diagram to indicate the nature of the relationship
40	Object Relationships Some use associations occur between objects of the same class For example, we might add two Rational number objects together as follows: r3 = r1.add(r2); One object (r1) is executing the method and another (r2) is passed as a parameter See RationalNumbers.java (page 244) See Rational.java (page 246)
41	Aggregation An aggregate object is an object that contains references to other objects For example, an Account object contains a reference to a String object (the owner's name) An aggregate object represents a has-a relationship A bank account has a name Likewise, a student may have one or more addresses See StudentBody.java (page 250) See Student.java (page 252) See Address.java (page 253)
42	Aggregation in UML An aggregation association is shown in a UML class diagram using an open diamond at the aggregate end
43	Applet Methods In previous examples we've used the paint method of the Applet class to draw on an applet The Applet class has several methods that are invoked automatically at certain points in an applet's life The init method, for instance, is executed only once when the applet is initially loaded The start and stop methods are called when the applet becomes active or inactive The Applet class also contains other methods that generally assist in applet processing
44	Graphical Objects Any object we define by writing a class can have graphical elements The object must simply obtain a graphics context (a Graphics object) in which to draw An applet can pass its graphics context to another object just as it can any other parameter See LineUp.java (page 257) See StickFigure.java (page 259)
45	Summary Chapter 4 has focused on: class definitions encapsulation and Java modifiers method declaration, invocation, and parameter passing method overloading method decomposition graphics-based objects